The Search for Earth

N = the number of civilizations in our galaxy with which communication might be possible;

R_* = the average rate of star formation per year in our galaxy

f_p = the fraction of those stars that have planets

n_e = the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets

f_ℓ = the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop life at some point

f_i = the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop intelligent life

f_c = the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space

L = the length of time for which such civilizations release detectable signals into space

What is this? This is Drake's Equation. What does it tell us? It tells us the chances of finding intelligent life elswhere in the galaxy. 

Humans have been infatuated with the idea of life elswhere in the universe for decades. From movies to video games to comics, our culture is obsessed with "little green men from Mars". The greatest TV series ever produced, Star Trek, is based entirely on the entreaction of various species in the galaxy. The thought of someone else being out there is compelling, and according to the latest research from NASA, maybe not as impossible as once was thought. 

Backtrack to my posts about space colonization. What does life as we know it need to survive? 

• Oxygen
• Water
• Food
• Proper temperature
• Proper ecosystem

Earth, obviously, provides all that we need for this. But what about other planets? 

NASA is studying planets orbitting stars light years away from Earth to determine if they rest inside the "habitable zone". The habitable zone is where water is found in the liquid state. If water is a liquid and not a solid or a gas, then we know that a nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere will be a gas, not a solid or liquid, because the temperature range where water remains a liquid is entirely inside the temperature range for the atmosphere to be gas. 

The habitable zone has a wider range than is normally expected. The habitable zone can be from ver close to very far away from the star, depending on the size and energy output of the star. This means that a very low energy output star's habitable zone is much closer to it than the habitable zone of a high energy star. 

We can determine how far away a planet is from it's star with a lot of very complicated math which I won't go into now. Basically though, we can determine how close it is by how much a star's light "flickers". Toss a ball past a lightbulb and watch how it blocks the light for a minute to see what I'm talking about.  

Once we find a planet in the habitable zone, the next step is to determine the surface temperature of the planet. NASA's orbitting infrared telescopes are able to measure surface temperature of far away planets. Once we know the surface temperature, we know if it is possible for liquid water to exist on the planet. If so, then there may be the presence of life on the planet. 

If we do find life, it will probably be only in the bacterial form, but life of any sort will still be a step closer to understanding the secrets of the galaxy. 

Go to www.planethunters.org to learn more about planet hunting. You can even sign up to hunt planets yourself! 

The Real Outrage of Nuclear Energy

Everone knows of the outrages regarding nuclear energy. "Nuclear energy is going to destroy all living things on Earth!", "Everyone who lives near a nuclear plant is going to die of cancer!" and, my personal favorite, "Nuclear energy is going to cause the sun to collapse into a black hole and swallow the Earth!". If you believe these, especially the last one, read on. 


First off, the nuclear energy that we have here really is safe. There are accidents that occur, but really, the day to day dangers of nuclear energy are overblown by the media. (If anyone on CNN or FoxNews is reading this, yes, I mean you!). Nuclear power creates electricity using sustained nuclear fission. Nuclear fission involves splitting the nucleus of an atom to make smaller nuclei. The process will often release free neutrons and photons. Nuclear fission is generally used with Uranium-235. A free photon is shot at the nucleus of the uranium atom. The collision creates Uranium-236, which splits into many smaller nuclei. The particles released from the breaking of the Uranium-236 collide with other Uranium-235, causing a chain reaction. The chain reaction releases heat, which is used to generate electricity. 





There are definite dangers regarding this nuclear power, (think Chernobyl), but in comparison to other forms of electricity production, nuclear power is definitely safer than most. 


The main problem with nuclear power is the waste. The process creates Plutonium-239, a highly radioactive substance which can be used to make nuclear weapons. The Plutonium-239 is generally placed in nuclear waste dumps, which are growing in size across the country. What we need is something we can use for nuclear energy which will require simpler mechanics, will be less dangerous, and won't leave nuclear waste behind. 


Enter Thorium. Thorium isn't very radioactive, in fact, you could carry a lump of it in your pocket without harm. Thorium is unique because in the nuclear power generators, it will release more free neutrons that equal amounts of Uranium. This means that less fuel is used, and therefore, less waste. Thorium is easier controlled than Uranium, which greatly reduces the chances of nuclear meltdown. Thorium is also a very common element- the US alone has at least 175,000 tons of it. Other countries, such as India, have even more. 


So why isn't Thorium used instead of Uranium-235? Thank the Cold War, the only true outrage of nuclear energy. While America and the Soviet Union were in a deadlock, both were trying to gain the upper hand in a struggle for world dominance. And both were creating nuclear weapons. The US was the leading country in nuclear development, and it knew both the benefits of Thorium powered nuclear energy and the risks of Uranium. So why did Uranium and not Thorium become the mainstream nuclear energy fuel? Weapons. The Plutonium waste from Uranium reactors can be used to create nuclear weapons. The US wanted these weapons, and thus Uranium became the mainstream nuclear fuel. 


For the past 50 years, Thorium has been nearly forgotten, but recently scientists and engineers are starting to rediscover the benefits of Thorium fueled nuclear energy. India especially has a growing percentage of Thorium nuclear power plants. The US us hoping to follow along with its own Thorium plants, but before this can happen, the common anti-nuclear opinion of the American population must be educated and the skeptics convinced. Eventually, however, Thorium fueled nuclear energy will become the only source of nuclear power worldwide, once people realize the safety, economic and ecological benefits. 


For more information, visit: http://www.wired.com/magazine/2009/12/ff_new_nukes/

Mars Exploration and Colonization

"Why should we colonize Mars?" you might ask. "Aren't we fine here on Earth?" Technically, yes, we are fine on Earth. But colonizing Mars is about more than just about "what will humanity do when the Earth's resources run out?" and "what if we wipe ourselves out by war?" or "what if our nuclear wastes ruin the planet?" (see my next blog post for my article on that one). 


We need to explore and colonize Mars because exploring new worlds is at the heart of human nature. Throughout history, humans have been exploring unknown corners of the earth and settling in new lands. Europe, Asia, Australia, and North and South Americas are examples. Exploreres, searching for better lands and more food, came and settled. The USA would not exist if people had not been willing to make the voyage over and settle. And the entire point of the Western Expansion was settling the new land. It is the same for Mars. We must settle Mars because exploring and settling new lands is what humans do. 


On top of this, Mars is a treasure trove of scientific data. Mars has or has had every type of geologic process known on its surface. It once had oceans, and the possibility of life, even microbial life, fascinates astrobiologists. Mars once was like Earth, before it got too cold. It is the logical place to really begin our expansion into space. 


How are we going to make it to Mars? Right now, it takes almost 2 years to make it to Mars. This is too long for humans to travel. But NASA propulsion engineers are currently working on faster ships to carry us to the Red Planet within a matter of months, and once this is accomplished, we will be ready to begin the next phase of the Mars Mission. 


How will we survive on Mars? The first step to surviving on Mars is to build a base to keep the colonists safe from the Martian elements. The Mars base must be able to protect against the following:
Temperature
Dust
Radiation
Little Green Men (jk!) 


The Martian temperature ranges from -143 to 27 C (-225 to 81 F). The Mars base must be insulated to protect against the extreme temperature range of the Martian surface. 
Martian dust is similar to moon dust, and moon dust has been known to cause lung damage when it is inhaled. (Moon dust from astronauts' suits got into the Apollo capsules and caused serious damage to the astronauts lungs). Martian dust is worse because of the iron oxide; the rust in the iron will do even worse damage to lungs than moon dust. The Mars base must have the proper air filters to keep the dust from being breathed by colonists. 
The Martian atmosphere is thinner than Earth's, and it's magnetic field is very weak. This means that although Mars is farther from the sun than Earth, it is bombarded by much more radiation. The Martian base will bahe to be lined all over with protective materials. Lead is a possibility, but it is very heavy and will be expensive to transport because of it's weight. Another possibility is Demron. Demron is a lightweight fabric that protects against radiation. Special plastics are currently being developed to protect against radiation while being lightweight and easy and cheap to transport. 


There are many challenges that stand in the way of exploration and colonization of Mars. But NASA is working on solving these issues, and is plannning on a fully operative Mars base within the next ten years. 

Moon Base

Hey, I just remembered that I have a blog, so here's my post on the Moon Base. Finally. :)

NASA has been interested in building a moon base for a while now. But with everything on the ISS going so well, we now are actually able to put the effort into researching and planning for one.

As you may recall, NASA's Space Program baby steps were first to have a reusable space shuttle, a space station, a moon base, and finally Mars. We've gone over the shuttle and the ISS, (see ancient posts from forever ago), so next is the Moon Base.

We need to design a moon base that can be self sufficient. It costs money to transport things from Earth, and food can't be kept fresh long enough. Different ideas have been suggested for how to do this. Solar power is definitely an option. Every moon base design has plans to grow plants using solar power to provide heat.

Water is also a problem that we must work out. Luckily, there is a high enough amount of water at the molecular state on the moon that we can probably find a way to consolodate enough to form a miniature water cycle to sustain the station.

So we've talked about what the base will need. Where on the moon can we possibly do this? The answer is the South Pole. The lunar south pole gets enough sunlight to power the base, and it has some of the highest H2O concentration on the lunar surface. Perfect for the base.

So now we have what we need from the moon and where to put it. How will we design this?

First off, the base must protect against radiation. Radiation is super high on the moon, and there is no atmosphere or magnetic field to protect against it. Even lead will be no good against the radiation on the moon, so engineers are working to devise a new synthetic material to block radiation in the lunar habitat.

The base must be set up so as to allow for solar power.

The habitat will likely be a dome, with smaller structures surrounding it.

The base will likely have a system of tunnels connecting it.

The base must be insulated against both extreme heat and extreme cold.

And the base must be a place where humans can live independently and self-sustaining for months at a time.

NASA is working to design a moonbase that will meet these criteria. But for the meantime, the actual execution of a moonbase is still too far in advnace to have an accurate estimate, although NASA hopes to have it done by the 2020s.

There. I told you I'd get around to posting something. Eventually. :)

Next focus: Mars Mission!

INSPIRE

OK, I know I said the next post would be about a Prospective Moon Base. I lied. :) Before I post about that, I wanted to say something about the most wonderful STEM opportunity for high schoolers in the U.S.

NASA's INSPIRE Program (Interdisciplinary National Science Program Incorporating Research and Education) is an opportunity for high schoolers to participate in an Online Learning Community (OLC)dedicated to promoting interest in NASA and NASA opportunities and ultimately a career in NASA or another STEM related field. There are Live Chats with NASA Scientists and Engineers, activities every week that teach us about the theme of the week. Time spent participating is entirely up to you, you can do as much or as little as your schedule allows. It is recommended that you go onto the OLC at least 1-3 times a week to stay on top of things. There are summer programs, rising 10th graders go to their nearest NASA center for a few days with a parent/guardian and tour the center, rising 11th graders fly to a college or university for two weeks to study STEM subjects, and rising 12th graders/College Freshmen are hired as summer interns at their nearest NASA center. The whole program is just absolutely wonderful, I've really enjoyed this past year in it and a looking forward to the next. Applications are now open, I have included a link to the application page. Also included is the article on nasa.gov about INSPIRE. I certainly hope some of you will consider applying! :D For more info contact:
nasainspire@okstate.edu
Steven.H.Chance@nasa.gov 

INSPIRE Brochure

INSPIRE Application Site

The Interdisciplinary National Science Project Incorporating Research and Education Experience, or INSPIRE, is a multitier year-round program designed for students in ninth to 12th grade who are interested in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, or STEM, education and careers.

Through the INSPIRE Online Learning Community, or OLC, the centerpiece of the INSPIRE Project, students from across the nation have the opportunity to interact with their peers, NASA experts, and education specialists twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. Members of the OLC Discover new knowledge while exploring their interests through unique activities and challenges; Connect with subject matters experts through weekly chats and blogs, as well as their peers on an exclusive discussion board; and Equip themselves through access to resources designed to help students prepare for their future as well as information about other NASA competitions/opportunities. Even parents/guardians have a unique opportunity when their student is accepted into the INSPIRE project by providing them with resources designed to help champion their child’s education and career goals.

To ensure all students have an opportunity to participate in the OLC, those who qualify for the National School Lunch Program are eligible to receive a free laptop.

To be considered for the INSPIRE Online Learning Community, applicants must:

• Be entering the ninth through 12th grade when the school year begins.
• Be at least 13 years of age or older at the time of application.
• Be a U.S. citizen.
• Have a minimum of a 2.5 academic grade point average on an unweighted 4.0 scale.
• Demonstrate the desire and the academic preparation to pursue a STEM-related field of study beyond high school.
• Complete the online application process with all required documentation.

Members in good standing with the INSPIRE OLC have the opportunity to compete for grade-appropriate summer STEM experiences. The summer STEM experience is designed to provide hands-on opportunities to investigate education and careers in STEM at a NASA facility or a Space Grant Institution/University. Each summer experience, except the Collegiate Experience, will take place at the NASA facility within the student's service area. To locate the NASA facility in your service area, please see the "NASA Facilities and Service Area" section below.

Explorer Experience: INSPIRE OLC participants in the ninth grade may compete for The Explorer Summer Experience. Selected applicants and their parents/guardians receive a trip to the NASA facility within their service areas, where they will participate in a VIP tour and workshop. The visit occurs the summer between the students' ninth- and 10th-grade school year.

Collegiate Experience: INSPIRE OLC participants in the 10th grade may compete for The Collegiate Summer Experience. Students selected participate in a two-week on-campus experience at a Space Grant Institution/University. Students are chaperoned by the host institution where their exposure to college life is designed to improve study skills and encourage the pursuit of higher education and careers in STEM areas. NASA INSPIRE will pay round-trip travel expenses for those students who live more than 100 miles from the college or university providing this experience. In addition, the college or university provides lodging, meals, supervision and educational activities. The Collegiate Experience occurs the summer between the students' 10th- and 11th-grade school year.

Residential Internship: INSPIRE OLC participants in the 11th grade may compete for the Residential Internship Summer Experience. Selected students participate in a paid, eight-week internship under a NASA mentor at the NASA facility within the students' service areas. During the internship, students are provided:

• A stipend based on minimum wage for the state in which the NASA facility is located and a lunch allowance.
• Meals and housing at a location within commuting distance from the NASA facility, typically a nearby college dormitory.
• Daily transportation to and from work and required project activities.
• Supervision and mentoring by scientists and engineers at the NASA center during working hours.
• Interaction with qualified, experienced and highly motivated professional educators who provide supervision and implement the enrichment activities and cultural activities during non work hours.

Pre-College Internship: INSPIRE OLC participants in the 12th grade who have been accepted to attend a college or university to pursue a STEM degree may compete for the Pre-College Internship Summer Experience. Selected applicants participate in a paid, eight-week internship with a NASA mentor at the NASA facility within their service areas. During this internship, the student receives a stipend and is then responsible for making all lodging, meals and transportation arrangements.

To be considered for a summer STEM experience, INSPIRE Online Learning Community participants must at a minimum:

• Be an active participant in the INSPIRE Online Learning Community.
• Have a 3.0 academic grade point average on an unweighted 4.0 scale.
• Submit updated transcripts, recommendations and parental consent forms, and other documentation as instructed.
• Students must be at least 16 years of age to participate in the Residential Internship or the Pre College Internship.

Note: Depending on funding availability, the number of laptops to be awarded may be limited and not all summer experiences may be offered every year.

Applications for the 2011 – 2012 OLC will be accepted until June 30, 2011. Students are highly encouraged to submit their application as soon as possible. To receive periodic notices about INSPIRE and application notices, we encourage students and parents to register at the following website:
>  https://inspire.okstate.edu/index.cfm?liftoff=login.LoginForm  →.

NASA FACILITIES AND SERVICE AREA

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NASA Facility: Ames Research Center
Location: Moffett Field, California
Area of Service: Alaska, Northern California (southernmost counties of Inyo, Kings, Monterey, Tulare), Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming

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NASA Facility: Dryden Research Center
Location: Edwards Air Force Base, California
Area of Service: Arizona, Southern California (northernmost counties of Kern, San Bernardino, San Luis Obispo)

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NASA Facility: Glenn Research Center
Location: Cleveland, Ohio
Area of Service: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin

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NASA Facility: Goddard Space Flight Center
Location: Greenbelt, Maryland
Area of Service: Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont

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NASA Facility: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Location: Pasadena, California
Area of Service: TBD

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NASA Facility: Johnson Space Center
Location: Houston, Texas
Area of Service: Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas

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NASA Facility: Kennedy Space Center
Location: Merritt Island, Florida
Area of Service: Florida, Georgia, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands

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NASA Facility: Langley Research Center
Location: Hampton, Virginia
Area of Service: Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia

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NASA Facility: Marshall Space Flight Center
Location: Huntsville, Alabama
Area of Service: Alabama, Arkansas, Iowa, Missouri, Tennessee, Louisiana

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NASA Facility: Stennis Space Center
Location: near Biloxi, Mississippi
Area of Service: Mississippi, Louisiana

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INSPIRE Brochure
INSPIRE Brochure

NASA Contact
Steve Chance
INSPIRE Project Manager
Mail Code: XA-D/John F. Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899
E-mail: Steven.H.Chance@nasa.gov

ISS (International Space Station)

Geez it's been a while. Next was the ISS, or International Space Station. 


The International Space Station is part of the stepping stone to Mars. As you may recall from the Space Shuttle, the original plan to Mars was first a way to get into space relatively cheaply and efficiently, followed by an orbital base, followed by a moon base, followed by Mars. To build this orbiting base, the U.S. turned to international partners, Russia, Europe, Japan, Canada, in completing the construction of the base. 





The International Space Station marks its 10th anniversary of continuous human occupation on Nov. 2, 2010. Since Expedition 1, which launched Oct. 31, 2000, and docked Nov. 2, the space station has been visited by 196 individuals from eight different countries.

At the time of the anniversary, the station’s odometer will read more than 1.5 billion statute miles (the equivalent of eight round trips to the Sun), over the course of 57,361 orbits around the Earth. Since the first module, Zarya, launched at 1:40 a.m. EST on Nov. 20, 1998, it has made a total of 68,519 orbits of our home planet, or about 1.7 billion miles on its odometer.

As of the Nov. 2 anniversary date there have been 103 launches to the space station: 67 Russian vehicles, 34 space shuttles, one European and one Japanese vehicle. A total of 150 spacewalks have been conducted in support of space station assembly totaling more than 944 hours.

The space station, including its large solar arrays, spans the area of a U.S. football field, including the end zones, and weighs 827,794 pounds. The complex now has more livable room than a conventional five-bedroom house, and has two bathrooms and a gymnasium. 







Perhaps the greatest accomplishment of the ISS is as much a human achievement as it is a technological one—how best to plan, coordinate, and monitor the varied activities of the Program’s many organizations.

An international partnership of space agencies provides and operates the elements of the ISS. The principals are the space agencies of the United States, Russia, Europe, Japan, and Canada. The ISS has been the most politically complex space exploration program ever undertaken.

The International Space Station Program brings together international flight crews, multiple launch vehicles, globally distributed launch, operations, training, engineering, and development facilities; communications networks, and the international scientific research community.

Elements launched from different countries and continents are not mated together until they reach orbit, and some elements that have been launched later in the assembly sequence were not yet built when the first elements were placed in orbit.

Operating the space station is even more complicated than other space flight endeavors because it is an international program. Each partner has the primary responsibility to manage and run the hardware it provides.

Construction, assembly and operation of the International Space Station requires the support of facilities on the Earth managed by all of the international partner agencies and countries involved in the program.

These include construction facilities, launch support and processing facilities, mission operations support facilities, research and technology development facilities and communications facilities. 





At any given time on board the space station, a large array of different experiments are underway within a wide range of disciplines. These experiments are selected by each space station partner to meet the goals of each respective agency. Some basic examples of these are:

Biology and Biotechnology

In microgravity, controls on the directionality and geometry of cell and tissue growth can be dramatically different to those on Earth. Various experiments have used the culture of cells, tissues and small organisms on orbit as a tool to increase our understanding of biological processes in microgravity.

Earth and Space Science

The presence of the space station in low-Earth orbit provides a unique vantage point for collecting Earth and space science data. From an average altitude of about 400 km, details in such features as glaciers, agricultural fields, cities, and coral reefs taken from the ISS can be layered with other sources of data, such as orbiting satellites, to compile the most comprehensive information available.

Educational Activities

The space station provides a unique platform for inspiring students to excel in mathematics and science. Station educational activities have had a positive impact on thousands of students by involving them in station research, and by using the station to teach them the science and engineering that are behind space exploration.

Human Research

The space station is being used to study the risks to human health that are inherent in space exploration. Focal research questions address the mechanisms of the risks and develop test countermeasures to reduce these risks. Research on space station addresses the major risks to human health from residence in a long-duration microgravity environment. Results from this research are key enablers for future long-duration missions beyond low Earth orbit.

Physical Sciences

The space station provides the only place to study long-term physical effects in the absence of gravity. This unique microgravity environment allows different physical properties to dominate systems, and these have been harnessed for a wide variety of physical sciences.

Technology

Studies on the space station can test a variety of technologies, systems, and materials that will be needed for future long-duration exploration missions.


The ISS is one of the greatest accomplishements of humanity and will continue to serve us for at least another decade. 





Next Focus: Prospective Moon Base


Credits: NASA Missions website: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html
Bing Photos

Rocketry 101

Rocketry was originally invented by the Chinese, over 3000 years ago. Early rockets were designed to explode in the air to create a display for the rich and powerful monarchs; these were the very first fireworks. Rocketry techniques were very unsophisticated however, and it was nearly impossible to control where the rocket would land and how far it would travel. Some early inventors came up with designs for better rockets, but without the technology to build them, there was no way for their designs to be tested. It wasn't until Robert Goddard, the Father of Modern Rocketry, began redesigning the rockets that people really started to see a use and purpose for these rockets. 

Earlier inventors had designed rockets with a solid rocket fuel. A mix of Potassium Chlorate and Sulfar was a popular solid rocket fuel. What the solid rocket fuel did was, after the fuse was lit, the flame would reach the combustion chamber, that is, where the fuel was held, and it would ignite the fuel. The fuel would burn, creating a controlled flow of hot gases which would propel the rocket upward. The problem with the design was that there was no way to control the rockets ascent and trajectory. This was because the solid fuel would simply release propellant, but there was no way to maneuver the rocket to adjust trajectory. Robert Goddard was the first engineer to opt to use a liquid fuel, rather than the traditional solid. The liquid fuels were standardly a mixture of liquid hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen would be ignited, and would also burn, creating a flow of propellant. But what made this design unique was that it made it possible to maneuver the rocket easily. With a push of a button, the angle of the rocket could be adjusted in order to change the trajectory of the rocket, a major improvement over previous designs. 

The Goddard rocket had an engine at the top of the rocket and a fuel combustion chamber near the bottom. The purpose for this was to stabilize the rocket and prevent it from shaking while in flight. The design was good, the only drawback was that the fuse was also near the top. To light the fuse, a person would have to climb up near the rocket, light the fuse, jump down and run away as fast as possible. So it really wasn't the safest design ever, though it still was an improvement over previous designs.

Wernher von Braun was a brilliant German scientist who was brought to the US after the end of WW2. He was the one who had designed the "Buzz Bomb" for the Germans. The Buzz Bomb was actually not the greatest bomb ever built because it had a slight hitch. It was loud. REALLY loud. The people of London could hear it coming from across the ocean, and as long as they could hear the noise, they knew they were safe. It was when the noise had stopped that they knew it was time to prepare. To overcome this, Wernher von Braun designed the rocket to travel at supersonic speed, that is, faster than the speed of sound. This made it impossible for Londoners to predict the time of the bombs impact.The US, although obviously unhappy about this turn of events for our allies, decided after the war that anyone with a mind like that would be very very valuable to have designing our missiles and rockets. After the war, America and the Soviet Union were entering the Cold War. After the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite in space, Wernher von Braun and his scientists began to design the Atlas rocket, with the intention of launching a human into space. The Soviets were able to launch a human into space before us, however, we were able to launch a human into orbit before them, and of course we also launched the first human on the Moon in 1969, using the Saturn 5 rocket.

Something all rocket engineers must keep in mind is the weight of the entire launch vehicle. If there is not enough volume for the propellant in the rocket, it will be too heavy, and it won't launch. The ratio between the weight of the rocket and the amount of propellant has to be exact, otherwise the rocket will launch about three feet and collapse in on itself, like what happened to Wernher von Braun's first Vanderbilt Rocket.

Now the equation for the rocket propellant system is actually quite simple. In English, it is Fuel and Oxygen are combined with heat to create Exhaust, which launches the rocket, and also heat, which can be funneled back the the combustion chamber to to combine more Fuel and Oxygen.

Now the Space Shuttle (see previous post) is unique because it uses a combination of both liquid and solid fuels. I'm not going to go into to many details because hopefully you've already read that post, but the reason for this is basically because although solid fuel is easier to store, is cheaper and is lighter, the liquid fuel is about 600% safer. It's safer because the main fuel line can be shut down in case of an emergency, but solid fuel can't be. So the engineers decided to combine solid and liquid fuel at a ratio that will give them all the cheap, easy benefits of solid fuel, but will have the safety of liquid fuel. Very ingenious.

The reason for all this is because of Newton's laws of physics and motion. (Of course. What else?)  These laws can be broken down into:

• Objects generate forces
• Forces cause motion
• Forces produce acceleration
• An object's mass resists acceleration
• Forces come in pairs

There are three types of payloads that can be placed in a rocket. These three are:

• People
• Artificial satellites
• Warheads

And that's about it for Rocketry 101. If you want to see a movie with lot's of rocket launches, I recommend both Apollo 13 and October Sky. And I also encourage you to design your own rockets, and to hopefully launch them. You can find many model rockets kits in store, but please don't get those cheater model kits where all you do is put it on the launch pad and push the button. You never learn anything doing that. Try to really build the rocket, and you don;t even need a kit after a while. You can just get materials, build the rocket, and watch her fly. :)

Next Focus: The ISS (International Space Station)

The Space Shuttle

NASA's Space Shuttle program was one of the greatest achievements of the Space Age. From 1981 to 2011, the Space Shuttles, Columbia, Discovery, Challenger, Endeavor, and Atlantis, flew astronauts to and from Space on various missions.

The history of the Space Shuttle goes all the way back to the Mercury Program, from 1962-1963. Mercury launched six people into Space, and laid the foundation for people to eventually live in Space.

After Mercury comes Gemini, 1965-1966. There were ten launches with the Gemini Program, and the basis here was for people to learn to work in Space.

After the Gemini Program came the famous Apollo Program, 1969-1972. The purpose of the Apollo Program was to explore Space. It was with Apollo that America made the historic milestone of landing a human on the moon, with the Apollo 11 spacecraft in 1969.

After Apollo, NASA wanted humans to go to Mars. To do this, we needed to build a moon base first, and for the moon base, we needed a low Earth orbiting space station. This leads us to the Space Shuttle. In 1972, Congress approved the budget for the Space Shuttle Program. When the Apollo 16 astronauts were informed of this approval, while still on the moon, they jumped up three feet in excitement!

Now that the funding was secured, NASA turned to Max Faget for assistance in designing the Shuttle. Max Faget designed both the Mercury and Gemini spacecraft, and assisted in the design of the Apollo spacecraft, so he was a logical choice for the design of the Space Shuttle. His early designs were conical, like the Apollo, with extra boosters and engines for returning to Earth. The design that NASA wanted to use had a plane like structure, much like today's Space Shuttle, but what was unique about it was the booster rockets. The rockets were also designed like a plane, with wings, a cockpit and jet engines; this was so that a pilot could sit in the cockpit and fly the rockets back to Kennedy Space Center for reuse. NASA was all set to go with this design, but than the early plans showed that the approximate weight at launch would be 4,600,000 lbs! So they redesigned the rockets to be expendable, and fall off at a certain point to decrease the launch weight.

Once they had this part of the plans down, NASA turned to Boeing, Grummen and Thiokel to design the actual shuttle part. The main specification was that the payload had to be 60 ft. long and 15 ft. wide to allow for military cargo.
Grummen opted to put extra rockets on the Shuttle and launch that as it was.
Boeing came up with putting wings and a cockpit on the Saturn 5 rocket, and their design was closest to what we have today.
Thiokel decided to put rocket boosters along the sides and under the main shuttle.
NASA eventually decided to use the Saturn 5 rocket, with boosters along the sides of the Shuttle.

Now they needed fuel. There are two types of rocket fuel, solid and liquid. The benefits to solid rocket fuel are that it is cheaper, easier to use, and less complex than liquid fuel. But liquid fuel, although more expensive, harder to use because it needs better containers, and more complex, is actually safer. This is because, while liquid fuel can be shut off in the case of an emergency, solid fuel can not.

So NASA's final design was the Shuttle, with an external fuel tank below, and boosters along the sides, just like we have today. :)

Enterprise was the first Space Shuttle. Originally called 'Constellation'; so many Trekkies wrote to NASA that they finally gave in and named it 'Enterprise'. Enterprise was designed to go into Space, but all it was ever used for was testing launch and landing sites.

Next came Columbia. Columbia was the first Space Shuttle to launch all the way into space and come back down in 1981. It exploded during a launch in 2003.

Challenger made very few flights before it exploded in the atmosphere after launch in 1989.

Discovery made more flights than any other shuttle. It launched the Hubble Space Telescope in 1991, and was the 'Back to Orbit' vehicle after both the Challenger and Columbia Tragedies.

Endeavor made more flights than any other shuttle except Discovery, and still has one more flight to go before retirement.

Atlantis will be the last shuttle to be launched in Summer 2011.

And Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavor all helped to build the International Space Station, the first permanent space station and first step towards the moon base and Mars.

The Space Shuttle was originally to be replaced by the Constellation Program, but sadly, Congress cut funding for it. However, NASA will continue flying to the Space Station using the new Orion spacecraft, and hopes to build a permanent moon base using Orion.

Next Focus: Rocketry 101

Astronomical Volcanology

Astronomical Volcanology is the study of volcanoes in outer space. It explains mysteries regarding the geo structure of a planet, the internal geothermal activity of the planet, and the outer geography of the planet.  Astronomical Volcanology is also essential to the field of Planetary Meteorology. Millions of trillions of years ago, volcanoes formed our atmosphere, and can do this on other planets too! It helps us to understand our own lovely planet by providing information about the other celestial bodies in the solar system, thus helping us to better understand our own.  And finally, it gives us a map of a planet’s history. For example, the region around Olympus Mons, on Mars, is only approximately 100 million years old. This is only 2 % the approximate age of Mars, so we can hypothesize that Olympus Mons erupted for 98% of Mars’ history.  This field of science is extremely vital to studying the history of the universe and its contents.

The volcanoes in space are primarily researched on the planets Mercury, Venus and Mars, and also on the moons Io (orbiting Jupiter) and Titan (orbiting Saturn).  Orbiting satellites, planetary probes and landing rovers allow scientists to gather firsthand data about these marvelous and mysterious mountains. 

On Mercury, the Messenger spacecraft orbited the planet and gathered data on the far side, that is, the side never before studied, of Mercury.  The Messenger spacecraft found evidence of old volcanoes on the surface of Mercury.  The evidence included rifts along the surface of the planet, craters with traces of lava, and old mountains resembling those of active volcanoes on Earth.  Scientists believe the rifts were caused by volcanoes erupting while the planet was still young and volcanically active.  As the planet cooled from the outside in, the surface shrank and crunched, causing the rifts. On Earth, this is what was once believed to have shaped mountains, before the discovery of plate tectonics.  In other findings on Mercury, scientists discovered craters with what appears to be solidified lava.   The theory behind this is that after the meteorite crashed into the planet, lava oozed out.  These weakened spots became prone to more internal pressure, forming new volcanoes.  This is important because it shows us how planets form so close to stars, helping us learn about the planets in other solar systems.

Venus has more volcanoes than any other planet in our solar system. Scientists have discovered over 1600 major volcanoes or volcanic features, and an unknown number of minor volcanoes. The minor volcanoes have not been counted, but they have been estimated to be between 100,000 and 1,000,000!  Most appear to be extinct, (meaning not erupting anymore), shield volcanoes, but there are also a number of extinct cone volcanoes.  Although no active volcanoes have been discovered, knowledge of Venus’ surface is very limited, and scientists are open to the possibility of an active volcano on Venus, which is starting to seem quite likely.  Venus’ volcanoes are interesting because they appear limited in eruptive styles. The surface only shows signs of lava flows, no explosions. This is possibly because of the high atmospheric pressure of Venus; the pressure required for an explosion is much greater than that required on Earth.  Distinctive of Venus is its thick, heavy atmosphere, which is comprised mainly of CO₂, the gas primarily released from a volcano on Earth.  This atmosphere also shows evidence of volcanic presence on Venus; the volcanoes would have released heavy gases into the atmosphere, making it thick and heavy.

Mars is unique among the planets because it is home to our solar system’s largest known volcano, Olympus Mons.  Olympus Mons is a shield volcano, over three times as tall as Mount Everest and as wide as the entire Hawaiian Island chains. It is a dome volcano; however, it is nearly entirely flat on the top, with a gentle slope of between 2^o and 5^o. Mars is also home to many other large volcanoes, most of them up to two and one half times larger than the volcanoes found on Earth.  These volcanoes are all dome volcanoes, with a flat top.  Scientists are unsure why Mars’ volcanoes are characteristically flat.  Interestingly enough, Mars shows no signs of ever having active plate tectonics.  The large mountain chains on Earth, usually occurring at the sight of a plate tectonic junction, do not occur on Mars, indicating that all of the volcanoes are hotspot volcanoes, that is, volcanoes caused by extreme heat and pressure in one location under the planet surface, rather than as a result of pressure caused by friction at fault lines, (where tectonic plates meet).  Interestingly enough, Mars is believed to possibly be still volcanically active.  Mars is hit by meteorites very often, and when an area of the planet appears smooth, geologists believe that it is because the area has been “resurfaced” recently by lava flowing over the area and cooling.  Several such areas have been discovered on Mars, indicating that it may still be an active planet.  The reason that we have not recorded any volcanic activity is likely because, while we have many probes and rovers on Mars, and spacecraft orbiting above, we are still not able to observe the entire surface at any given time.  Given the ratio of planetary surface by surface area measured at the same time, it is actually very unlikely that we can observe a volcanic eruption on Mars, and are reduced to the second best option of making frequent observations to monitor changes.

On Io, the volcanoes are more geyser like, that is, rather than erupting molten rock, they erupt more along the lines of steam and gases. What's interesting about this is that it shows that Io has a geothermically stable structure, (the stuff inside it doesn't move much and doesn't exert a lot of pressure on the surface), but it does contain a lot of gases, also, it may even contain water vapor. And the volcanoes on Titan are now believed to erupt ice. That any volcanoes could erupt ice is scientifically astounding, since there is so much pressure and heat from friction in the volcano, and water would be erupted as steam, not ice, so Planetary Geologists are really trying to understand how this phenomenon is possible.  

These few examples show how Astronomical Volcanology is important to science, and how it aids us in learning and exploring other planets.  From studying Mercury, orbiting so close to a star, to Venus, with its thick, poisonous atmosphere, to Mars, which, though seeming so small, contains our solar system’s largest volcanoes, to Io and Titan, where we are only beginning to grasp the scientific data shown by their volcanoes, Astronomical Volcanology is always teaching us more about the history of our universe and the story of its many hidden mysteries.

Well, I hope you enjoyed learning about Astronomical Volcanology.  Isn't is simply fascinating?! Now you know why it's going to be my major. 

Next focus: The Space Shuttle: History, Engineering, and Missions. 

Week 4- Mathematics: Friend or Foe? (The correct answer is Friend, just so you know)

Well, here's the one I know you've been waiting for... Mathematics!!! :D


Mathematics is, quite simply, the study of Quantity, Structure, Space and Change. (That's numbers and counting to you and me). 'So what's the big deal about counting?', you might be asking, or, 'Well, I get the counting, but where does it tie into STEM?'. Think of it like this. If NASA couldn't count down backwards, they'd never know when to launch their rockets. 


But seriously, Mathematics is very important. It's even fun. (Yeah yeah I know, I deserve to boiled in oil for that one, don't I?). Mathematics comes from the Greek "Mathema", meaning "learning, study, or science". The calculations made using Mathematics allow Scientists to analyze data and come to new conclusions and theories, Engineers to design new stuff, whether it be a bridge or a space shuttle, and it even allows Technologicians, (that's a nice way of saying 'Technology Geeks'), to redesign and invent things for us. Computers cell phones, televisions, radios, dishwashers, washing machines, pretty much all of the stuff that we use every day uses Mathematics either in its programming or in its design. 


Most importantly though, is how Mathematics helps us learn about our vast, awesome, and infinitely beautiful universe. Mathematics is what allows Astronomers to calculate, say, the dimensions of Black Holes, or the amount of radiation being emitted from a star. This might seem inane to some, but not if you're the one stuck in the  black hole, or if the star emitting deadly levels of radiation is our own lovely sun. 


Just to keep my record, I will now divide Mathematics into separate fields. 


Arithmetic: Has been described accurately as 123, it is really just lots of counting.
Algebra: Is definitely more fun, it deals with equations of the unknown.
Geometry: Shapes, and how they relate to each other.
Analysis: Exactly what it sounds like, these people take a lot of data and simply analyze it.


And, that's pretty much it about Mathematics. You may now congratulate yourself on successfully surviving my four week posts on STEM. 


Now we get into the fun stuff. Next week's focus: Astronomical Volcanology. (Bonus points if you know what that is!)

Week 3- Engineering

Sorry this is a little late. I had a really busy weekend :)


This week's STEM focus is on Engineering. Engineering is, simply put, taking what we know from Science and Technology and giving it a new use to help society. 


"The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property." (American Engineers' Council for Professional Development)


The above quote simply means that an Engineer works to creatively apply Science to real life. 


As with Science and Technology, there are many branches of Engineering. Some of these include:


Chemical Engineer: Uses chemical principles to carry out large scale chemical processes, also develops special new materials and fuels. 


Civil Engineer: Designs and constructs public and private works, such as roads, railways, water supply and treatment, buildings, bridges, etc. 


Electrical Engineering: The design and study of various electric and electronic systems, circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, optical fibers, computers, telecommunications, pretty much anything to do with electricity or electronics. 


Mechanical Engineering: Designs physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft design, weapons systems, vehicle engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, and vibration isolation equipment. (Vibration isolation is using fast powerful vibrations to separate things. It's usually used by doctors and scientists to analyze microbes). 




Engineering has helped society by contributing to both our safety and convenience needs. For example, aeronautical engineers design new, faster airplanes to transport people faster. These same engineers also design their aircraft to have a lower chance of crashing, and better safety features in case they do. Engineering is a key part of NASA's mission, because of how it applies Science to everything else, and it is important to society as a whole because of how it helps us to live safer, more convenient and all round better lives. 




Next week's focus: Mathematics! :)